Wednesday, February 2, 2011

Some Important Inventions


01 The theory of relativity was propounded by Albert Einstein
02 The principal metal used in manufacturing steel is Iron
03 An altimeter is used for measuring Altitude
04 Oology is the study of Birds eggs
05 Radioactivity was discovered by Henry Bacquerel
06 The metal used in storage batteries is Lead
07 The instrument used to measure the relative humidity of air is Hygrometer
08 Barometer was invented by Torricelli
09 The unit of power is Watt
10 Radium was discovered by Marie and Pierrie Curie
11 The existence of isotopes was discovered by Frederick Soddy
12 Dynamo was invented by Michael Faraday
13 The nuclear reactor was invented by Enrico Ferni
14 The law of gravitation was propounded by Sir Isaac Newton
15 Crescograph was invented by J.C.Bose
16 Crescograph is used to measure the Rate of growth of a plant
17 Galileo's first scientific discovery was Pendulum
18 Microscope was invented by Aaton Van Leewen Hock
19 The scientist who is known as father of modern biology is Aristotle
20 The first person to see a cell under microscope was Robert Hooke
21 The smallest flowering plant is Worffia
22 The four blood groups were discovered by Karl Landsteiner
23 Sodium was discovered by Sir Humphry Davy
24 The atomic number of oxygen is Eight
25 The basic building blocks of proteins are Amino acids
26 The botanical name of the cotton plant is Gossipium Hirsutum
27 An Electroscope is used to Detect charges on a body
28 The unit of loudness is Phon
29 An ammeter is used to measure Electric current
30 Plant that eat insects are called Insectivorous plants
31 Fruits that are formed without fertilization are called Parthenocarpic
32 Plants that flower only once in their lifetime are called Mono carpic
33 The botanical name for rice is Oryza Sativa
34 Penicillin is obtained from Mould
35 The largest tree in the world is Seguoia Gigantica
36 Herpetology is the study of Reptiles
37 Entomology is the study of Insects
38 Ornithology is the study of Birds
39 Ichtyology is the study of Fishes
40 Osteology is the study of Bones
41 The botanical name for brinjal is Solanum melongenal
42 The botanical name for onion is Allium Cepa
43 The study of sound is called Acoustics
44 The study of heavenly bodies is called Astronomy
45 The study of tissues is called Histology
46 Electric Lamp was invented by Thomas alva Edison
47 The fear of crowd is called Ochlophobia
48 The fear of books is called Bibliophobia
49 The fear of going to bed is called Clinophobia
50 The symbol of gold is Au
51 The symbol of sodium is Na
52 The symbol of Sr stands for Strontium
53 The symbol Rb stands for Rubidium
54 The symbol Md stands for Mendelevium
55 Calcium sulphate is commonly called Plaster of Paris
56 Sodium carbonate is commonly called Washing Soda
57 Sodium chloride is commonly known as Common Salt
58 The chemical name of Chloroform is Trichloromethane
59 The chemical name of baking powder is Sodium bicarbonate
60 The chemical name of bleaching powder is Calcium hypochlorite
61 The formula HCL stands for Hydrochloric Acid
62 The formula H2SO4 stands for Sulphuric Acid
63 The formula CHCI3 stands for Trichloromethane
64 The formula H2O2 stands for Hydrogen peroxide
65 A fungus which can only survive on other living organisms is called Obligate Parasite
66 A plant which lives in the dark is called Scotophyte
67 A plant adapted to live in dry places is called a Xerophyte
68 A plant adapted for growth in water is called a Hydrophyte
69 Bifocal lens was invented by Benjamin Franklin
70 Cement was invented by Joseph Aspdin
71 Laser was invented by Dr.Charles H.Townes
72 Electromagnet was invented by William Sturgeon
73 Rayon was invented by Sir Joseph Swann
74 Thermostat is an instrument used for regulating Constant temperature
75 The science of organic forms and structures is known as Morphology
76 Phycology is the study of Algae
77 Tata Institute of Fundamental Research was established in 1945
78 CSIR stands for Council of Scientific and Industrial Research
79 ISRO stands for Indian Space Research Organisation
80 The first human being to land on moon was Neil Armstrong
81 The first Indian in space was Rakesh Sharma
82 ISAC stands for ISRO Satellite Centre
83 VSSC stands for Vikram Sarabhai space Centre
84 The headquarters of ISRO is located at Bangalore
85 VSSC is located at Thiruvananthapuram
86 ISAC is located at Bangalore
87 National Science Centre is located at New Delhi
88 Central Tobacco Research Institute is located at Rajahmundry
89 Indian Institute of Horticultural Research is located at Bangalore
90 The Atomic Energy Commission was set up in August 1948
91 The first Indian Satellite was Aryabhatta
92 The first Indian Satellite was launched in the year 1975
93 ASLV stands for Augmented Satellite Launch Vehicle
94 INSAT stands for Indian National Satellite
95 The fear of women is known as Gynophobia
96 The fear of men is known as Androphobia
97 The scientist who developed the Quantum theory was Max Plonck
98 The steam engine was invented by James Watt
99 The botanical name of tea is Camellia Sinensis
100 Logarithms were devised by John Napier
101 The acid used in a car battery is Sulphuric acid
102 The system for writing by blind people was invented by Louis Braille
103 The parachute was used for the first time by J.P.Blanchard
104 The German physicit who first demonstrated the existence of Radio waves was Henrich Hertz
105 The instrument that records the intensity of earthquakes is Seismograph
106 The laws of floating bodies was discovered by Archimedes
107 The density of milk is measured by a Lactometer
108 Fountain pen was invented by L.E.Waterman
109 The instrument used to measure the pressure of gases is the Monometer
110 Bhaskara I was a famous Astronomer
111 The first atomic power station established in India was the Tarapore Atomic Power Station
112 The role of heredity was demonstrated by Mendel
113 The instrument used to measure the concentration of salt water is the Salinometer
114 Spectroscopy is the study of Anders John Angstrom
115 Dactylography is the study of Finger Prints
116 A tangent galvanometer is used to study the Strength of direct current
117 The fruit of Oak is called Acron
118 ZETA stands for Zero Energy Thermonuclear Assembly
119 The formula C6H5OH stands for Phenol
120 Michael Faraday worked as an assistant under another scientist whose name was Sir Humphry Davy
121 Vulcanised rubber was invented by Charles Goodyear
122 The symbol Zn stands for Zinc
123 The symbol He stands for Helium
124 Celluloid was invented by A.Parker
125 Glider was invented by Sir George Caley
126 Safety matches was invented by J.E.Lundstrom
127 Radio valve was invented by Sir J.A.Fleming
128 Space Applications Centre is located at Ahmedabad
129 Atomic Energy Commission is located at Mumbai
130 Dynamics is the study of Movements of bodies
131 Statics is the study of Forces acting on bodies at rest
132 Mechanics is the study of Forces acting on bodies
133 Zoology is the study of Animal life
134 Botany is the study of Plant life
135 Psychology is the study of Human mind
136 The first American to orbit earth was John H.Glen
137 The electro-cardiograph was invented by William Einthoven
138 The molecular formula of cane sugar is C12H22O11
139 A compound which contains only hydrogen and Carbon is called a Hydrocarbon
140 The liquid used to preserve specimens of plans and animals is Formalin
141 The law of segregaton was propounded by Mendel
142 Auriscope is used to detect Ear disorders
143 The three states of matter are Solid,liquid and gas
144 The scientific name for blood platelets is Thrombocytes
145 The response of a plant to heat is called Thermotropism
146 The response of a plant to touch is called Trigmotropism
147 The symbol Zr stands for Zirconium
148 Nickel was discovered by Cronstledt
149 Manganese was discovered by Gahn
150 The common name for pottasium carbonate is Potash
151 Bismuth was discovered by Valentine
152 The biggest plant seed is Cocodemer
153 Toxicology is the study of Poisons
154 Virology is the study of Viruses
155 Paleontology is the study of Fossils
156 Calorimeter is used to measure Quantity of heat
157 Chronometer was invented by John Harrison
158 Stethoscope was invented by William Stockes
159 Spinning frame was invented by Sir Richard Arkwright
160 Al stands for Aluminium
161 Gd stands for Gadolinium
162 Ir stands for Iridium
163 Bi stands for Bismuth
164 The Chemical formula of sodium bicarbonate is NaHCO3
165 The chemical formula of common salt is Nacl
166 The chemical formula of washing soda is Na2CO3,IOH2O
167 The chemical formula of lime soda is CaCO3
168 The chemical formula of chloroform is CHcl3
169 The study of grasses is known as Agrostology
170 The study of antiquities is known as Archaeology
171 The study of the duration of life is known as Chronobiology
172 The study of bacteria is known as Bacteriology
173 Nylon was invented by Dr.Wallace H.Carothers
174 Electric razor was invented by Jacob Schick
175 The symbol of silver is Ag
176 The symbol of silicon is Si
177 The symbol of titanium is Ti
178 Calcium oxide is commonly known as Quick lime
179 A deviation of light passing from one medium to another is known as Refraction
180 An apparatus for generation of atomic energy is called a Reactor
181 A machine used for converting mechanical energy into electrical energy is called a Generator
182 The first Indian woman in space was Kalpana Chawla
183 The revolver was invented by Samuel Colt
184 The refrigerator was invented by J.Perkins

Tuesday, February 1, 2011

Micropropagation Stages


The Whole objective of micropropagation is to produce large number of plants, which are able to survive under natural environmental conditions.Each micropropagation process has to pass through following stages:-

Stage 0:- Management of Donor plant/s (Source of explant)

Stage 1:- Establishment of aseptic cultures

Stage 2:- Multiplication of shoots and/or elongation

Stage 3:- Induction of roots

Stage 4:- Hardening, acclimatization and transfer of plants in soil



Stage 0:- Management of Donor plant/s (Source of explant)

It is not an essential stage of micropropagation but desirable in many cases.Particularly in tree species, to obtain suitable and responsive explants, the plants are lopped during off-season of growth and when new growth appears, the juvenile branches are used to obtain explants. Such explants are also free from contamination and easy to establish in culture.


Stage 1:- Establishment of aseptic cultures

The process of micropropagation starts with establishment of aseptic cultures and this is the most critical phase determining succcess. Explants have t be treated with suitable chemosterilant to make them free from contamination. For each type of explants and plant species, a procedure of surfave sterlization has to be standardized in order to obtain high percentage of aseptic but most proliferating cultures. While standardizing the procedure the TCDC formula is applied.

T = Selection of the TYPE of chemical to be used.

c = Effective CONCENTRATION of the selected chemical.

D = The required DURATION of the treatment.

c = A COMBINATION of the treatment if required.

Explants like root tubers, rhizomes, corms and nodal segments obtained from old branches of trees pose serious problem of contamination and may require a harsh treatment of longer duration involving one or more chemicals.

Stage 2:- Multiplication of shoots and/or elongation

The shoots which are produced via any of the following pathways of micropropagation can be multiplied for an indefinite period by repeated subculturing (transfer of multiplying shoots on fresh medium):

(a) Stimulated axillary bud proliferation

(b) De novo adventitious shoot bud differentiation

(c) Callus organogenesis

In case of somatic embryogenesis both shoot and root develop simultaneously (bipolarity) and therefore, there is no separate phases of shoot multiplication and rooting. Cytokinins are generally incorporated individually or in combination with small quantity of auxin/s to stimulate shoot multiplication. Benzyl amino purine (BAP) has been considered to be a better cytokinin as compared to kinetin (Kn) to obtain such response. The multiplied ahoot clusters may be divided into single or small group of shoots and transferred to fresh medium for further proliferation. The rate of multiplication can be controlled by the concentation of the cytokinin and the particular type used.

Stage 3:- Induction of roots

Except somatic embryogenesis all other pathways of micropropagation require a separate root induction phase. Shoots of suitable size are excised from multiplying shoot cultures and inoculated on a medium containing root inducing harmone. Auxins like indole-butyric acid (IBA), naphthalene acetic acid (NAA) and indole-acetic acid (IAA) are generally used in their various concentrations and combinations to induce roots in in vitro developed shoots. Indole-butyric acid (IBA) is the most commonly used root inducing harmone. The temperature is maintained around 26-28'c round the clock. All these factors together, make tissue culture plants adapted to luxury of culture conditions. Such plants when transferred ex vitro can not withstand the transplantation shock and die. In order to solve this problem, the tissue cultures plants are subjected to gradual and systematic hardening and acclimatization procedures enabling them to establish in soil successfully.

In this in vitro hardening procedure the culture bottles are kept in culture room in aseptic environment with their caps closed. In this step only sucrose and nutrients are withdrawn. The tissue culture plants resume normalcy with respect to photosynthetic activity and become autotrophic. Such bottles are subsequently shifted to greenhouse environment which maintains a reducing humidity gradient (80-55 %), a temperature regime of 28-32'c and a light intensity which is about ten times higher than the culture room.

Stage 4:- Hardening, acclimatization and transfer of plants in soil

The plants grown in tissue culture live in luxury and become adapted to such environment. In tissue culture media sucrose is provided as a source of carbon and this makes culture to grow either hetero- or mixoautotrophically. Although, the plants remain green, they carry out negligible photosynthetic activity. Presence of high moisture content in the culture vessel results into abnormal development (deformed guard cells) and behaviour (sluggish) of stomata. Leaves produced in culture also lack cuticle. In culture room, the light intensity is very low as makes the stomatal functioning normal and the plants are able to survive in  low humidity conditions. 

When the plants attain a reasonable height, they are transferred to polybags containing normal garden soil. Plants in polybags acclimatize to greenhouse environment and become suitable for transfer to either field or nursery. Adopting the above procedures ( or with modification, wherever necessory) a large number of tissue culture plants can be established in soil.




Friday, January 28, 2011

Micropropagation


Plants are conventially propagated either by sexual (through generation of seeds) or by asexual (by multiplication of vegetative parts) means. Emergence of modern methods of plant tissue culture has provided a very useful alternative which allows rapid propagation of desired plant species in a limited space under strict control of growth conditions. These plants are microbiologically sterile and thus exempt from quarantine regulations that may apply to export/import of normal plants. In vitro production of plants is generally described as micropropagation. Micropropagation (micro = small area of glass vessels; propagation = to increase the number of propagules) can be defined as asexual multiplication of plants in a small area of glass vessel (in vitro) under controlled physio-chemical conditions.


Micropropagation can be achieved by any one of the following pathways:

1. Stimulated axillary bud proliferation.

2. De novo adventitious shoot bud differentiation.

3. Somatic embryogenesis and

4. Callus organogenesis.


Every method has its own advantages and disadvantages and the choice of a particular pathway will depend upon them.


1. Stimulated shoot bud proliferation:- This method of in vitro propagation utilizes the clue from the basic physiological phenomenon in plants called as "apical dominance". Vascular plants with intermediate mode of growth have in their leaf axils subsidiary meristem with the potential for the growing into shoot. Apical dominance is the phenomenon by which the presence of apical bud causes a complete or partial inhibition of pre-existing lateral buds. In this method of micropropagation nodal segments having pre-existing but inhibited axillary shoot buds are used to stimulate proliferation of shoots in the presence of cytokinins. Nodal segments can be taken from both sexually mature or seedling (cotyledonary nodes) materials. In this method of micropropagation, the shoot multiplication may be initially slower than the other methods but with each passage the number of shoot increases logarithmically. This method is currently the most popular approach for clonal propagation of crop plants because the cells of the shoot apex are uniformly diploid and are least susceptible to genotypic changes under culture conditions.


2. De novo adventitious shoot bud proliferation:- Adventitious shoot buds are those which develop on any part of the plant such buds are not pre-existing and differentiate de novo. Bryophylium is the best example in nature where adventitious shoots buds differentiate on the margin of fleshy leaves. Such shoot buds develop roots and serve as propagules. Adventitious shoot buds can also be induced in vitro on a variety of explants such as hypocotyl segments, cotyledons, leaf, stem segments etc. Differentiated shoot buds on their subsequent subculture to fresh medium can be multiplied to obtain a regular crop of shoots.


3. Somatic embryogenesis:- Development of an embryo in nature is the consequence of fertilization. It is enclosed in cotyledons and the seed coat. Embryo is unique in the sense that it is bipolar in nature. On germination, it develops into shoot and root simultaneously. Such embryos which develop from somatic cells are called as somatic embryos. Somatic embryos can develop in two different ways:

(a). Direct somatic embryogenesis
(b). Indirect somatic embryogenesis

Direct somatic embryogeny can be induced on any explant such as hypocotyls, cotyledons, leaf, stem segments etc. Somatic embryo development begins with stimulation of few cells on the explant which from a globular structure subsequently developing into heart shaped, torpedo and cotyledonary stage embryos.The somatic embryos are borne naked and can easily be distinguished from the adventitious shoot buds. Somatic embryos are discrete units and lack vascular connection with the mother explant while adventitious shoot buds have continuity of vascularization with the mother explants.
In case of indirect somatic embryogeny, the embryo develops adventitiously with an intervening callus phase. Callus can be induced from a variety of explants and subsequently the embryos can be induced on it.




4. Callus organogenesis:- Callus is an unorganized mass of cells which can be induced on any explant grown on a suitable medium. Callus formation is basically a result of dedifferentiation (an explant which is differentiated tissue gets converted into dedifferentiated mass of cells). Callus can be multiplied in culture for indefinite period even in absence of light in culture room environment. Callus can again be induced to develop shoots by the phenomenon called redifferentiation (callus organogenesis). By manipulating plant growth regulator in the medium, both dedifferentiation (auxin rich medium) and redifferentiation (cytokinin rich medium) can be easily controlled. Durig callus formation, the cell to cell contact is lost and the cells seem to be in the state of "chaos".This result into somaclonal variation on account of genetic changes (ex. change in ploidy level) that occur in culture.







Arabidopsis Thaliana


Arabidopsis is an angiosperm, a dicot from the mustard family (Brassicaceae). It is popularly known as thale cress or mouse-ear cress. While is has no commercial value - in fact is considered a weed - it has proved to be an ideal organism for studying plant development.

Some of its advantages as a model organism:-

1. It has one of the smallest genomes in the plant kingdom: 115,409,949 base pairs of DNA distributed in 5 chromosomes (2n = 10).

2. Very little of this is "junk" DNA so most of the DNA encodes its 25,498 genes.

3. Transgenic plants can be made easily using Agrobacterium tumefaciens as the vector to introduce foreign genes.

4. The plant is small - a flat rosette of leaves from which grows a flower stalk 6-12 inches high.

5. It can be easily grown in the lab in a relatively small space.

6. Development is rapid. It only takes 5-6 weeks from seed germination to the production of a new crop of seeds.

7. It is a prolific producer of seeds (up to 10,000 per plant) making genetics studies easier.

8. Mutations can be easily generated (ex. by irradiating the seeds or treating them with mutagenic chemicals.

9. It is normally self-pollinated so recessive mutations quickly become homozygous and thus expressed.

10.Other members of its family cannot self-pollinate. They have an active system of self-incompatibility. Arabidopsis, however, has inactivating mutations in the genes - SRK and SCR - that prevent self-pollination in other members of the family.

11.However, Arabidopsis can easily be cross-pollinated to

   @ do genetic mapping and
   @ produce strains with multiple mutations.

Tuesday, January 25, 2011

Plant Hormone

Plant hormones also known as plant growth regulators (PGRs) and phytohormones) are chemicals that regulate a plant's growth. According to a standard animal definitions, hormones are signal molecules produced at specific locations, that occur in very low concentrations and cause altered processes in target cells at other locations. The word hormone is derived from Greek and means 'set in motion'. They are naturally produced within plants though very similar chemicals are produced by fungi and bacteria that can effect plant growth. The concentration of hormones required for plant responses are very low. Plant hormones affect gene expression and transcription levels, cellular division and growth.


The five major classes are:


1. Abscisic acid:- Abscisic acid also called ABA, was discovered and researched under two different names before its chemical properties were fully known,it was called dormin and abscicin 2. Once it was determined that the two latter named compounds were the same, it was named abscisic acid. The name "abscisic acid" was given because it was found in high concentrations in newly abscissed or freshly fallen leaves.

In plants that are water stressed, ABA plays a role in closing the stomata. Soon after plants are water stressed and the roots are deficient in water, a signal moves up to the leaves causing the formation on ABA precursors, these precursors moves to the roots which release ABA that is trans-located to the foliage through the vascular system, which regulates the potassium or sodium uptake within the guard cells then loses turgidity, closing the stomata.


2. Auxins:- Auxins are compounds that positively influence cell enlargement, bud formation and root initiation.They also promote the production of other hormones and in conjuction with cytokinins, they control the growth of stems, roots, flowers and fruits. Auxins were the first class of growth regulators discovered. They affect cell elongation by altering cell wall plasticity. Auxins decrease in light and increase where its dark. They stimulate cambium cells to divide and in stems cause secondary xylem to differentiate. Auxins act to inhibit the growth of buds lower down the stems, affecting a process called apical dominance and also promote lateral and adventitious root development and growth. Auxins especially NAA and IBA, are also commonly applied to stimulate root growth when taking cuttings of plants. The most common auxin found in plants is indoleacitic acid or IAA.
                                                           


3. Cytokinins:- Cytokinins are CKs are a group of chemicals that influence cell division and shoot formation. They were called Kinins in the past when the first cytokinins were isolated from yeast cells. They also help delay senescence or the aging of tissues are responsible for mediating auxin transport throughout the plant and affect internodel length and leaf growth. Cytokinins counter the apical dominance induced by auxins, they in
conjunction with ethylene promote abscission of leaves, flower parts and fruits.

4. Ethylene:- Ethylene is a gas that forms from the breakdown of methionine, which is in all cells. Ethylene has very limited solubility in water, and does not accumulate within the cell but diffuses out of the cell and escapes out of the plant. Its effectiveness as a plant hormone is dependent on its rate of escaping into the atmosphere. Ethylene is produced at a faster rate in rapidly growing and dividing cells especially in darkness. Ethylene affects cell growth and cell shape. Ethylene affects fruit ripening normally when the seeds are mature, ethylene production increases and builds-up within the fruit resulting in a climacteric event just before seed dispersal. The nuclear protein ETHYLENE INSENSITIVE 2 (EIN2) is regulated by ethylene production and in turn regulates other hormones including ABA and stress hormones.

5. Gibberellins:- Gibberellins or GAs include a large range of chemicals that are produced naturally within plants and by fungi. They were first discovered when japanese researches noticed a chemical produced by a fungus called Gibberella fujikuroi that produced abnormal growth in rice plants. They play a major role in seed germination, affecting enzyme production that mobilizes food production new cells need for growth. This is done by modulating chromosomal transcription. Gibberellins also reverse the inhibition of shoot growth and dormancy induced by ABA.





Wednesday, January 19, 2011

Java Programmes (Used In Bioinformatics)

 1.Addtion

public class Add
{
public static void main (String args[])
{

int x=20;
int y=30 ;
int x3=x+y;
System.out.println("Sum is"+x3);
}
}

out put:-
C:\Program Files\Java\jdk1.6.0_03\bin\java.exe  -classpath "C:\Program Files\Java\jdk1.6.0_03\jre\lib\rt.jar;C:\Program Files\Java\jdk1.6.0_03\lib\tools.jar;E:\java_programs" Add ruchir amit
Sum is50
Finished executing

2.Addion (Command line argument)

public class Add1
{
public static void main (String args[])
{
String s1= args[0];
String s2= args[1];
int x1=Integer.parseInt(s1);
int x2=Integer.parseInt(s2);
int x3;
x3=x1+x2;
System.out.println("Sum is"+x3);
}
}
output:- 5 7
C:\Program Files\Java\jdk1.6.0_03\bin\java.exe  -classpath "C:\Program Files\Java\jdk1.6.0_03\jre\lib\rt.jar;C:\Program Files\Java\jdk1.6.0_03\lib\tools.jar;E:\java_programs" Add1  5 7
Sum is12
Finished executing


3.WAP to check Prime no.

public class Prime
{
public static void main(String args[])
{
String s1=args[0];
int n=Integer.parseInt(s1);
int i;
for(i=2;i<n;i++)
{
 {if(n%i==0)
 break;
 }
 }
 if(i!=n)
 System.out.println("not prime");
 else
 System.out.println("prime");
   }
  }

output:-
C:\Program Files\Java\jdk1.6.0_03\bin\java.exe  -classpath "C:\Program Files\Java\jdk1.6.0_03\jre\lib\rt.jar;C:\Program Files\Java\jdk1.6.0_03\lib\tools.jar;E:\java_programs" Prime 4
not prime
Finished executing

4.WAP to check armstrong no.

public class Armstrong
{
public static void main(String args[])
{
      int sum ,p,r;
      String s1= args[0];
      int y=Integer.parseInt(s1);
      r=y;
 sum=0;
while(y!=0)
{
 p=y%10;
 sum=sum+(p*p*p);
      y=y/10;
     }
     if (sum==r)
     {
     System.out.println("Armstrong");
     }
     else
     {
       System.out.println(" not Armstrong");
      }
    }
  }

output:-153
C:\Program Files\Java\jdk1.6.0_03\bin\java.exe  -classpath "C:\Program Files\Java\jdk1.6.0_03\jre\lib\rt.jar;C:\Program Files\Java\jdk1.6.0_03\lib\tools.jar;E:\java_programs" Armstrong 153
Armstrong
Finished executing

5.WAP for heilstone series.

public class Heilstone
{
 public static void main(String args[])
 {
 String s1=args[0];
 int a=Integer.parseInt(s1);
 while(a>1)
 {
  if (a%2==0)
   a=a/2;
   else
   a=a*3+1;
   System.out.print(+a+",");
  }
  System.out.println(a);
 }
}
 output:12
C:\Program Files\Java\jdk1.6.0_03\bin\java.exe  -classpath "C:\Program Files\Java\jdk1.6.0_03\jre\lib\rt.jar;C:\Program Files\Java\jdk1.6.0_03\lib\tools.jar;E:\java_programs" Heilstone 12
6,3,10,5,16,8,4,2,1,1
Finished executing


6.public class Series
{
 public static void main(String args[])
        {
         String s1=args[0];
         int n=Integer.parseInt(s1);
         int i,j;
         for(i=1;i<=n;i++)
            {
                for(j=1;j<=i;j++)
                {
                 System.out.print(j);
                }
                System.out.println(" ");
            }

        }

}

output:-5
C:\Program Files\Java\jdk1.6.0_03\bin\java.exe  -classpath "C:\Program Files\Java\jdk1.6.0_03\jre\lib\rt.jar;C:\Program Files\Java\jdk1.6.0_03\lib\tools.jar;E:\java_programs" Series 5
1
12
123
1234
12345
Finished executing

7.public class Series2
{
 public static void main(String args[])
 {
  String s1=args[0];
  int n=Integer.parseInt(s1);
  int i,j;
  for(i=1;i<=n;i++)
  {
  for(j=1;j<=i;j++)
  {
  System.out.print(i);
  }
  System.out.println(" ");
  }
  }
 }

output:5
C:\Program Files\Java\jdk1.6.0_03\bin\java.exe  -classpath "C:\Program Files\Java\jdk1.6.0_03\jre\lib\rt.jar;C:\Program Files\Java\jdk1.6.0_03\lib\tools.jar;E:\java_programs" Series2 5
1
22
333
4444
55555
Finished executing

8.public class Series3
{
 public static void main(String args[])
 {
 int i,j,k,s=30;
 for(i=1;i<=5;i++)
 {
 for(j=1;j<=s;j++)
 System.out.print(" ");
 for(k=1;k<=2*i-1;k++)
 {
 System.out.print("*");
 }
 System.out.println();
 s--;
 }
 }
 }
C:\Program Files\Java\jdk1.6.0_03\bin\java.exe  -classpath "C:\Program Files\Java\jdk1.6.0_03\jre\lib\rt.jar;C:\Program Files\Java\jdk1.6.0_03\lib\tools.jar;E:\java_programs" Series3 5
                              *
                             ***
                            *****
                           *******
                          *********
Finished executing

7. WAP to print strigs according to asending order.
class stringorder
{
static String name[]={"RUCHIR", "NIKHIL", "SAUMYA", "ATUL", "AASTHA"};
public static void main(String args[ ])
{
int size=name.length;
String temp = null;
for (int i=0; i<size; i++)
{
for (int j=i+1 ;j<size;j++)
{
if (name[j].compareTo(name[i])<0)
{
temp= name[i];
name[i]=name[j];
name[j]=temp;
}
}
}
for (int i=0;i<size;i++)
{
System.out.println(name[i]);
}

output:C:\Program Files\Java\jdk1.6.0_03\bin\java.exe  -classpath "C:\Program Files\Java\jdk1.6.0_03\jre\lib\rt.jar;C:\Program Files\Java\jdk1.6.0_03\lib\tools.jar;E:\java_programs" stringorder 5
AASTHA
ATUL
NIKHIL
RUCHIR
SAUMYA
Finished executing

8.WAP to print strigs according to asending order (no. of char).

public class Stringsort
{
public static void main(String args[])
{
int i,j;
String a[]={"anki","saumya","ruch","nikhi"};


for(i=0;i<a.length;i++)
{
for(j=0;j<i;j++)
{

if (a[i].length()>a[j].length())
{
String l=a[i];
a[i]=a[j];
a[j]=l;
}
}
}
for (i=0;i<a.length;i++)
{
System.out.println(a[i]);
}
}
}

output:-
C:\Program Files\Java\jdk1.6.0_03\bin\java.exe  -classpath "C:\Program Files\Java\jdk1.6.0_03\jre\lib\rt.jar;C:\Program Files\Java\jdk1.6.0_03\lib\tools.jar;E:\java_programs" Stringsort 5
saumya
nikhi
ruch
anki
Finished executing

9. Default Constructor

class Student
{
int roll;
String nm;
Student()
{
roll=101;
nm="ruchir";
}
void display()
{
System.out.println("Name="+nm+"And roll="+roll);
}
}
public class Consdemo
{
public static void main(String args[])
{
Student t1=new Student();

t1.display();
}
}
output:-
C:\Program Files\Java\jdk1.6.0_03\bin\java.exe  -classpath "C:\Program Files\Java\jdk1.6.0_03\jre\lib\rt.jar;C:\Program Files\Java\jdk1.6.0_03\lib\tools.jar;E:\java_programs" Consdemo 5
Name=ruchirAnd roll=101
Finished executing

10. Parametrise Constructor

 class Student
{
int roll;
String nm;
Student(int r, String s)
{
roll=r;
nm=s;
}
void display()
{
System.out.println("Name="+nm+"And roll="+roll);
}
}
public class Conspara
{
public static void main(String args[])
{
Student t1=new Student(101,"Ruchir");

t1.display();
}
}

output:-
C:\Program Files\Java\jdk1.6.0_03\bin\java.exe  -classpath "C:\Program Files\Java\jdk1.6.0_03\jre\lib\rt.jar;C:\Program Files\Java\jdk1.6.0_03\lib\tools.jar;E:\java_programs" Conspara 5
Name=RuchirAnd roll=101
Finished executing


11.Function Overloading
class area
{
final float pi=3.14f;
void calculate (int a)
{
int t=a*a;
System.out.println("Area of square="+t);
}


void calculate (int a,int b)
{
int t= a*b;
System.out.println("Area of reactangle="+t);
}

void calculate (float c)
{
float t= pi*c*c;
System.out.println("Area of circle="+t);
}
}
class function1
 {
 public static void main(String args[])
 {
 area a1=new area();
 a1.calculate(7);
 a1.calculate(4.2f);
 a1.calculate(8,3);
 }
 }

output:-
C:\Program Files\Java\jdk1.6.0_03\bin\java.exe  -classpath "C:\Program Files\Java\jdk1.6.0_03\jre\lib\rt.jar;C:\Program Files\Java\jdk1.6.0_03\lib\tools.jar;E:\java_programs" function1 5
Area of square=49
Area of circle=55.389595
Area of reactangle=24
Finished executing

12.Constructor overloading

class area
{
final float pi=3.14f;
void area (int a)
{
int t=a*a;
System.out.println("Area of square="+t);
}
area (int a,int b)
{
int t= a*b;
System.out.println("Area of reactangle="+t);
}
area (float c)
{
float t= pi*c*c;
System.out.println("Area of circle="+t);
}
}

class Functioncons
 {
 public static void main(String args[])
 {
 area a1 = new area(7);
 area a2 = new area(7,8);
 area a3 = new area(5.2f);
}
}

output:-
C:\Program Files\Java\jdk1.6.0_03\bin\java.exe  -classpath "C:\Program Files\Java\jdk1.6.0_03\jre\lib\rt.jar;C:\Program Files\Java\jdk1.6.0_03\lib\tools.jar;E:\java_programs" Functioncons 5
Area of circle=153.86002
Area of reactangle=56
Area of circle=84.905594
Finished executing

13.Single inheritance
class item
{
int pr,qty;
void getitem(int a,int b)
{
pr=a;
qty=b;
}
void display()
{
System.out.println( "price="+pr+"and quality="+qty);
}
}
class total extends item
{
int total;
void calculate()
{
total=pr*qty;
System.out.print("total value="+total);
}
}
class inherit
{
public static void main(String args[])
{
total t1= new total();
t1.getitem(6,25);
t1.display();
t1.calculate();
}
}

output:
C:\Program Files\Java\jdk1.6.0_03\bin\java.exe  -classpath "C:\Program Files\Java\jdk1.6.0_03\jre\lib\rt.jar;C:\Program Files\Java\jdk1.6.0_03\lib\tools.jar;E:\java_programs" inherit 5
price=6and quality=25
total value=150Finished executing

14.Interface
interface Area
{
final float pi = 3.14f;
void calculate(int a);
}
class Circle implements Area
{
  public void calculate(int a)
{
float t=a*a*pi;
    System.out.println("Area of circle="+t);
}
}
class Square implements Area
{
public void calculate(int a)
{
int t=a*a;
System.out.println("Area of square="+t);
}
}
public class Interfacedemo
{
public static void main(String args[])
{
Area a1;
Circle c1=new Circle ();
  Square s1=new Square ();
a1=c1;
a1.calculate(6);
a1=s1;
a1.calculate(4);
}
}
 output:-
C:\Program Files\Java\jdk1.6.0_03\bin\java.exe  -classpath "C:\Program Files\Java\jdk1.6.0_03\jre\lib\rt.jar;C:\Program Files\Java\jdk1.6.0_03\lib\tools.jar;E:\java_programs" inherit 5
price=6 and quality=25
total value=150Finished executing


15. Multilevel Inheritance

class item
{
String na;
int pr,qty;
item (int p,int q,String s)
{
na=s;
pr=p;
qty=q;
}
void display()
{
System.out.println("name="+na + "price="+ pr + "quality="+qty);
}
}
class user extends item
{
int to_user,to_price;
int no;
user ( String a,int b,int c,int d)
{
super(c,d,a);
no=b;
}
void display()
{
super.display();
to_price=no*pr*qty;
to_user=qty;
System.out.print("total price="+to_price+ "and total user="+to_user );
}
}

 class ruc
{
public static void main(String args[])
{
user a1=new user( "pen",10,105,25);
a1.display();
}
}
 output:-
 C:\Program Files\Java\jdk1.6.0_03\bin\java.exe  -classpath "C:\Program Files\Java\jdk1.6.0_03\jre\lib\rt.jar;C:\Program Files\Java\jdk1.6.0_03\lib\tools.jar;E:\java_programs" ruc 5
name=penprice=105quality=25
total price=26250and total user=25Finished executing

16.Multilevel and Multiple Inheritance

class student
{
int roll;
String nm;
void getdata(int r,String s)
{
roll=r;
nm=s;
}
void dispdata()
{
System.out.println("name="+nm+ "roll no.="+roll);
}
}
class marks extends student
{
int m1,m2;
void getmarks(int a,int b)
{
m1=a;
m2=b;
}

void dispmarks()
{
System.out.print("sub_1="+m1+ "and sub_2="+m2 );
}
}
interface bonus
{
int b=20;
void dispbonus();
}
class result extends marks implements bonus
{
int tot;
public void dispbonus()
{
System.out.print("bonus marks="+b);
}
void dispall()
{
dispdata();
dispmarks();
dispbonus();
tot=m1+m2+b;
System.out.print("Total marks="+tot);
}
}
class ruch
{
public static void main(String args[])
{
result r1=new result();
r1.getdata(101,"ruchir");
r1.getmarks(50,60);
r1.dispall();
}
}

output:-
C:\Program Files\Java\jdk1.6.0_03\bin\java.exe  -classpath "C:\Program Files\Java\jdk1.6.0_03\jre\lib\rt.jar;C:\Program Files\Java\jdk1.6.0_03\lib\tools.jar;E:\java_programs" ruch 5
name=ruchirroll no.=101
sub_1=50and sub_2=60bonus marks=20Total marks=130Finished executing


17. Multiple Inheritance
class A extends Thread
{
public void run()
{
int i;
for (i=1 ;i<=5;i++)
{
System.out.println("from thread A="+i);
}
System.out.println("exit from thread A");
}
}

class B extends Thread
{
public void run()
{
int j;
for (j=1 ;j<=5;j++)
{
System.out.println("from thread B="+j);
}
System.out.println("exit from thread B");
}
}

class c extends Thread
{
public void run()
{
int k;
for (k=1 ;k<=5;k++)
{
System.out.println("from thread C="+k);
}
System.out.println("exit from thread C");
}
}
class prioritythread
{
public static void main(String args[])
{
A t1=new A();
B t2=new B();
c t3=new c();
t1.start();
t2.start();
t3.start();
System.out.println("exiting from main");
}
}

output:-
C:\Program Files\Java\jdk1.6.0_03\bin\java.exe  -classpath "C:\Program Files\Java\jdk1.6.0_03\jre\lib\rt.jar;C:\Program Files\Java\jdk1.6.0_03\lib\tools.jar;E:\java_programs" prioritythread 5
exiting from main
from thread B=1
from thread B=2
from thread B=3
from thread B=4
from thread B=5
exit from thread B
from thread A=1
from thread A=2
from thread A=3
from thread A=4
from thread A=5
exit from thread A
from thread C=1
from thread C=2
from thread C=3
from thread C=4
from thread C=5
exit from thread C
Finished executing

18. Multiple Inheritance with exceptional handleing

class A extends Thread
{
public void run()
{
int i;
for (i=1 ;i<=5;i++)
{
System.out.println("from thread A="+i);
if(i==2)
yield();
}
System.out.println("exit from thread A");
}
}

class B extends Thread
{
public void run()
{
int j;
for (j=1 ;j<=5;j++)
{
System.out.println("from thread B="+j);
}
System.out.println("exit from thread B");
}
}

class c extends Thread
{
public void run()
{
int k;
for (k=1 ;k<=5;k++)
{
System.out.println("from thread c="+k);
if (k==2)
try
{ Thread.sleep(10);}
catch (Exception e1)
{}
}
System.out.println("exit from thread C");
}
}

class thread2
{
public static void main(String args[])
{
A t1=new A();
B t2=new B();
c t3=new c();
t1.start();
t2.start();
t3.start();
System.out.println("exiting from main");
}
}

Output:-
C:\Program Files\Java\jdk1.6.0_03\bin\java.exe  -classpath "C:\Program Files\Java\jdk1.6.0_03\jre\lib\rt.jar;C:\Program Files\Java\jdk1.6.0_03\lib\tools.jar;E:\java_programs" thread2 5
from thread A=1
from thread A=2
exiting from main
from thread c=1
from thread c=2
from thread A=3
from thread A=4
from thread B=1
from thread A=5
from thread B=2
exit from thread A
from thread B=3
from thread B=4
from thread B=5
exit from thread B
from thread c=3
from thread c=4
from thread c=5
exit from thread C
Finished executing

19.Thread priority

class A extends Thread
{
public void run()
{
int i;
for (i=1 ;i<=5;i++)
{
System.out.println("from thread A="+i);
}

System.out.println("exit from thread A");
}
}
class B extends Thread
{
public void run()
{
int j;
for (j=1 ;j<=5;j++)
{
System.out.println("from thread B="+j);
}
System.out.println("exit from thread B");
}
}
class c extends Thread
{
public void run()
{
int k;
for (k=1 ;k<=5;k++)
{
System.out.println("from thread C="+k);
}
System.out.println("exit from thread C");
}
}
class priority_th
{
public static void main(String args[])
{
A t1=new A();
B t2=new B();
c t3=new c();
t1.setPriority(Thread.MIN_PRIORITY);
t3.setPriority(Thread.MAX_PRIORITY);
t1.start();
t2.start();
t3.start();
System.out.println("exiting from main");
}
}

output:-
C:\Program Files\Java\jdk1.6.0_03\bin\java.exe  -classpath "C:\Program Files\Java\jdk1.6.0_03\jre\lib\rt.jar;C:\Program Files\Java\jdk1.6.0_03\lib\tools.jar;E:\java_programs" priority_th 5
exiting from main
from thread C=1
from thread C=2
from thread C=3
from thread B=1
from thread C=4
from thread A=1
from thread C=5
from thread B=2
exit from thread C
from thread A=2
from thread A=3
from thread A=4
from thread B=3
from thread A=5
from thread B=4
exit from thread A
from thread B=5
exit from thread B
Finished executing

20 runnable interface:-

class A extends Thread
{
public void run()
{
int i;
for (i=1 ;i<=5;i++)
{
System.out.println("from thread A="+i);
}

System.out.println("exit from thread A");
}
}
class B extends Thread
{
public void run()
{
int j;
for (j=1 ;j<=5;j++)
{
System.out.println("from thread B="+j);
}
System.out.println("exit from thread B");
}
}
class c extends Thread
{
public void run()
{
int k;
for (k=1 ;k<=5;k++)
{
System.out.println("from thread C="+k);
}
System.out.println("exit from thread C");
}
}
class runnableinter
{
public static void main(String args[])
{
A t1=new A();
B t2=new B();
c t3=new c();
Thread a1=new Thread(t1);
Thread a2=new Thread(t2);
Thread a3=new Thread(t3);
a1.start();
a2.start();
a3.start();
System.out.println("exiting from main");
}
}

output:
C:\Program Files\Java\jdk1.6.0_03\bin\java.exe  -classpath "C:\Program Files\Java\jdk1.6.0_03\jre\lib\rt.jar;C:\Program Files\Java\jdk1.6.0_03\lib\tools.jar;E:\java_programs" runnableinter 5
from thread A=1
from thread B=1
from thread B=2
from thread B=3
exiting from main
from thread B=4
from thread B=5
exit from thread B
from thread C=1
from thread A=2
from thread C=2
from thread A=3
from thread C=3
from thread A=4
from thread C=4
from thread A=5
from thread C=5
exit from thread A
exit from thread C
Finished executing

21.Synchronization:-

class One
{
      synchronized void display(int num)
      {
            System.out.println(" " + num);
            try
            {
               Thread.sleep(1000);

            }
            catch(InterruptedException e)
            {
                System.out.println("Interrupted");
            }
            System.out.println("Exiting");
        }
}

class Two implements Runnable
{
      int n;
      One o1;
      Thread t;
      public Two(One a1,int t1)
      {
            n=t1;
            o1=a1;
            t=new Thread(this);
            t.start();
      }
      public void run()
      {
             o1.display(n);
      }
}

class Synchronize
{
      public static void main(String args[])
      {
             One t1=new One();
             int digit=10;
             Two t2=new Two(t1,digit++);
             Two t3=new Two(t1,digit++);
             Two t4=new Two(t1,digit++);
             try
             {
                t2.t.join();
                t3.t.join();
                t4.t.join();
             }
             catch(InterruptedException e)
             {
             }
       }
}

output:-
C:\Program Files\Java\jdk1.6.0_03\bin\java.exe  -classpath "C:\Program Files\Java\jdk1.6.0_03\jre\lib\rt.jar;C:\Program Files\Java\jdk1.6.0_03\lib\tools.jar;E:\java_programs" Synchronize 5
 10
Exiting
 12
Exiting
 11
Exiting
Finished executing

22.Daemon (type of thread)
class Daemon implements Runnable
{
      static Thread t1,t2;
      public Daemon()
      {
             t1=new Thread(this);
             //t1.start();
             t2=new Thread(this);
             t2.setDaemon(true);
             t1.setDaemon(true);
      }
      public void run()
      {
             System.out.println("Number of threads running " +Thread.activeCount());
             System.out.println(t1.isDaemon());
             System.out.println(t2.isDaemon());
      }
             public static void main(String args[])
             {
                    new Daemon();
                    System.out.println("Number of threads running " +Thread.activeCount());
                    System.out.println(t1.isDaemon());
                    System.out.println(t2.isDaemon());
             }

}

output:-
C:\Program Files\Java\jdk1.6.0_03\bin\java.exe  -classpath "C:\Program Files\Java\jdk1.6.0_03\jre\lib\rt.jar;C:\Program Files\Java\jdk1.6.0_03\lib\tools.jar;E:\java_programs" Daemon 5
Number of threads running 1
true
true
Finished executing

23. Static class
 class abc
{
void display()
{
System.out.println("non static mathod");
}
static void hello()
{
System.out.println("static mathod");
}
}

 class staticdemo
 {
 public static void main(String args[])
 {
 abc t1 = new abc();
 t1.display();
 abc.hello();
 }
 }

output:-
C:\Program Files\Java\jdk1.6.0_03\bin\java.exe  -classpath "C:\Program Files\Java\jdk1.6.0_03\jre\lib\rt.jar;C:\Program Files\Java\jdk1.6.0_03\lib\tools.jar;E:\java_programs" staticdemo 5
non static mathod
static mathod
Finished executing

24.Exceptional handling
class Exceptiondemo
{
public static void main(String args[])
{
try
{
String s=args[0];
int a= Integer.parseInt(s);
int c=a*a;
System.out.println(c);
}
catch (ArrayIndexOutOfBoundsException e1)
{
System.out.println("No arument passed");
}
catch(NumberFormatException e2)
{
System.out.println("Invalid type");
}
catch (Exception e3)
{
System.out.println(e3);
}
System.out.println("Program ending");
}
}

output 1:-5
C:\Program Files\Java\jdk1.6.0_03\bin\java.exe  -classpath "C:\Program Files\Java\jdk1.6.0_03\jre\lib\rt.jar;C:\Program Files\Java\jdk1.6.0_03\lib\tools.jar;E:\java_programs" Exceptiondemo 5
25
Program ending
Finished executing
output 2:-5.2
C:\Program Files\Java\jdk1.6.0_03\bin\java.exe  -classpath "C:\Program Files\Java\jdk1.6.0_03\jre\lib\rt.jar;C:\Program Files\Java\jdk1.6.0_03\lib\tools.jar;E:\java_programs" Exceptiondemo 5.3
Invalid type
Program ending
Finished executing

25. Different with help of Applet :-
import java.applet.Applet;
import java.awt.*;
public class Red extends Applet
{
public void paint(Graphics g)
{
g.drawRect(50,50,150,400);
g.drawOval(100,110,50,50);
g.setColor(Color.red);
g.fillOval(100,110,50,50);
g.drawOval(100,190,50,50);
g.setColor(Color.yellow);
g.fillOval(100,190,50,50);
g.drawOval(100,270,50,50);
g.setColor(Color.green);
g.fillOval(100,270,50,50);
}
}

26. Applet (text box ,click box)

import java.awt.*;
import java.awt.event.*;
import java.applet.Applet;
public class Appdemo extends Applet implements ActionListener
{  TextField t1,t2,t3;
    Button b1,b2,b3,b4;
 public void init()
 {
 Label l1=new Label ("enter a no.");
 Label l2=new Label ("Another no");
 Label l3=new Label("Answer");
t1=new TextField(20);
t2=new TextField(20);
 t3=new TextField ("30");
  b1=new Button("Add");
  b2=new Button("Sub");
  b3=new Button("multi");
  b4=new Button("div");
 add(l1);
 add(t1);
add(l2);
add(t2);
add(l3);
add(t3);
add(b1);
add(b2);
add(b3);
add(b4);
b1.addActionListener(this);
b2.addActionListener(this);
b3.addActionListener(this);
b4.addActionListener(this);
}

public void actionPerformed(ActionEvent e1)
{
String s1,s2,s3;
int n1,n2,n3;
s1=t1.getText();
s2=t2.getText();
n1=Integer.parseInt(s1);
n2=Integer.parseInt(s2);
if(e1.getSource()==b1)
{
n3=n1+n2;
}
else if(e1.getSource()==b2)
{
n3=n1-n2;
}
else if(e1.getSource()==b3)
{
n3=n1*n2;
}
else if(e1.getSource()==b4)
{
n3=n1/n2;
}
s3=String.valueOf(t3);
t3.setText(s3);
}
}

HTML page:-Appdemo.html
<HTML>
<HEAD>
    <TITLE></TITLE>
</HEAD>
<BODY>
 <Applet code="Appdemo.class" width ="600" height="800">
 </Applet>
</BODY>
</HTML>

27. traffic light with help of Applet

import java.applet.Applet;
import java.awt.*;
public class Traffic extends Applet
{
 public void init ()
  {
   setBackground(Color.white);
   }
 public void paint (Graphics g)
  {
   g.setColor(Color.black);
   g.fillRect(0,0,50,90);
   g.setColor(Color.red);
   g.fillOval(10,20,20,20);
   g.setColor(Color.yellow);
   g.fillOval(10,40,20,20);
   g.setColor(Color.green);
   g.fillOval(10,60,20,20);
   }
}

html page:- traffic.html
<HTML>
<HEAD>
    <TITLE></TITLE>
</HEAD>
<BODY>
<Applet Code ="Traffic.class" width ="300">
</Applet>
</BODY>
</HTML>

2.traffic light (blinking)

import java.applet.Applet;
import java.awt.*;
public class Trafficlight extends Applet
{
 public void init ()
  {
   setBackground(Color.white);
   }
 public void paint (Graphics g)
  {
   g.setColor(Color.black);
   g.drawRect(0,0,50,90);
   for( ; ;)
   {
   g.setColor(Color.red);
   g.fillOval(10,20,20,20);
   g.setColor(Color.black);
   g.fillOval(10,40,20,20);
   g.fillOval(10,60,20,20);
   try
   { Thread.sleep(2000);}
   catch(Exception e)
   {}
   g.fillOval(10,20,20,20);
   g.setColor(Color.yellow);
   g.fillOval(10,40,20,20);
   g.setColor(Color.black);
   g.fillOval(10,60,20,20);
   try
   { Thread.sleep(2000);}
   catch(Exception e)
   {}
   g.setColor(Color.black);
   g.fillOval(10,20,20,20);
   g.fillOval(10,40,20,20);
   g.setColor(Color.green);
   g.fillOval(10,60,20,20);
   try
   { Thread.sleep(2000);}
   catch(Exception e)
   {}
   }
  }
}
 html page:-traffic.html
<HTML>
<HEAD>
    <TITLE></TITLE>
</HEAD>
<BODY>
<Applet Code ="Trafficlight.class" width ="300">
</Applet>
</BODY>
</HTML>

Saturday, January 15, 2011

Plant Cell Growth

Growth is the self-multiplication of living material, the protoplasm it self. Growth is an increase in size (volume or length) duw to cell divisions and subsequent enlargement. It is an increase in dry weight or bulk of an organism associated with development.


Development is defined as an ordered change or progress, often towards a higher, more ordered or more complex state. Development may take place with growth and growth may take place with development.



Population growth is the increase in the total mass of cells making the population, or the increase in the total number of cells of the population. Individual growth is the increase in mass of the individual cell.

WHY GROWTH OCCURS?



Growth is expressed as the division of a cell to form two cells and the enlargement of the newly divided cells. When we say that cells double in all their constituents and then divide in half, we are obviously describing the average case. When we observe individual cells, however, we find deviations from the average. In some instances, the growth rate is constant rather than accelerating.

Mass of cells doubles and halves only in an average way and not in an exact way. Cells divide when they are ready and they are ready only when they have completed certain preparations for division.

CRITICAL MASS THEORY:-


In 1908 the German biologist Richard von Hertwig proposed the theory of the critical mass. In Hertwig's view a growing cell eventually reaches a size at which the ratio between the masses represented by cytoplasm on the one hand and the cell nucleus on the other becomes limiting. When that limiting ratio is reached, he proposed, some instability sets which triggers cell division. The nucleus-cytoplasm relation theory, as hertwig called it, does not hold up very well when mass alone is considered to be the factor that triggers cell division. Many exceptions to this hypothesis have accumulated that, although the division of cells usually parallels, an increase in cytoplasmic mass, this increase alone is not generally accepted as the fundamental mechanism
controlling cell cycle.

AGE OF CELLS:-



Cells taken from old cultures are often referred to as old cells, The age of a single cell cannot be greater than the time between two divisions. A cell, when first formed by cell division, although often called a young cell, contains materials both genetic and protoplasmic, which pre-existed in the parent cell. Age of the cell depend on its life spam. The life spam begins when the daughter cell is completely separated from the parental cell, this is called inception. It ends when this daughter cell itself divide later to give new daughter cells, this is known as termination. The period between inception and termination is called the generation time. This is actually the visible generation time that is observed. We can define young population of cells as the one, which is still actively growing and contains fewer cells that it is possible to obtain from that culture under tha same conditions, but old population is defined as that one which has reached the maximum number of cells under similar conditions. There are three types of following generation times :-



1. The visible generation time which is the period between inception and termination. It depends on division of cell wall.
2. Nuclear generation time depends on division of the nucleus. It starts from the moment the nucleus divides to the complete ability to divide again in the new daughter cells.

Generation time is given the symbol t.

SYNCHRONOUS AND SYNCHRONIZED GROWTH:-

Synchronous growth cultures are produced without metabolic shock. But synchronized culture are two ones in which we produce step-wise growth, the synchrony is induced by physiological shock. The principal means of doing synchronous growth are as follows :

1. Separation by physical means of cells in the population that are all at the same stage of the cellular life   cycle. Ex. by filteration, centrifugation etc.

2. Attachment of growing cells to a membrane, from which one product of cell division is shed. i.e., age selection. 

BALANCED AND UNBALANCED GROWTH:-

Exponential growth, whether in batch or continuous cultures, is the balanced growth. That is all cellular constituents are manufactured at constant rates relative to each other. If nutrient levels or other environmental conditions change, unbalanced growth results because the rates of synthesis of cell components vary relative to one another until a new balanced stage is reached.

Unbalanced growth occurs when a bacterial population is shifted down from a rich medium to a poor one. The organism may previously have been able to obtain many cell components directly from the medium. When shifted to a nutritionally inadequate medium, they need time to make the enzyme required for the biosynthesis of unavailable nutrients. Consequently cell division and DNA replication continue after the shift-down, but net protein and RNA synthesis slow.